Impressionism and Expressionism in modern drama

Impressionism and Expressionism

Impressionism and expressionism are two trends thatbare equally well-markd in modern drama. Impressionism was a movement in painting, music and literature whose aim was to force the beholder, listener or the reader to participate in recreating the experience of the artist and whose method was to suggest "impression" or effect on the artist than to make precise and explicitvthe objective characteristics of things or events. In impressionism the emphasis is on the subjective reception of impressions, and the impressionist seeks to escape from the tyrannical aspects of objective reality. The impressionist does not accept objective life as it comes, but seeks to escape from the world of reality to his own imaginary land. Traces of can be found in the plays of Irish writer like W.B. Yeats and J.M. Synge.

    Expressionistic movement originated in Germany as a reaction against naturalism. It attempted to express the basic reality of its subjects rather than to produce the mere appearance or surface of life. Expressionist drama was not concerned with society but man. It aimed to offer subjective psychological analysis, not so much of individual as of a type and it made use of the subconscious. For such a study established dramatic forms and methods of expression were inadequate. Hence the expressionists threw overboard conventional structure in favour of an unrestricted freedom. The dialogue of the expressionist drama were after cryptic and patterned on prose and was in every way far remote from naturalistic prose of the realist school. Sean O'Casey, C.K. Munro, Elmer Rice are those who popularised expressionism in drama.

RICHARD BAXTER

                               RICHARD BAXTER (1615-1691). 

This "busiest man of his age" strongly suggests Bunyan in his life and writings. Like Bunyan, he was poor and uneducated, a nonconformist minister, exposed continually to insult and persecution; and, like Bunyan, he threw himself heart and soul into the conflicts of his age, and became by his public speech a mighty power among the common people. Unlike Jeremy Taylor, who wrote for the learned, and whose involved sentences and classical allusions are sometimes hard to follow, Baxter went straight to his mark, appealing directly to the judgment and feeling of his readers.

The number of his works is almost incredible when one thinks of his busy life as a preacher and the slowness of manual writing. In all, he left nearly one hundred and seventy different works, which if collected would make fifty or sixty volumes. As he wrote chiefly to influence men on the immediate questions of the day, most of this work has fallen into oblivion. His two most famous books are The Saints' Everlasting Rest and A Call to the Unconverted, both of which were exceedingly popular, running through scores of successive editions, and have been widely read in our own generation.

IZAAK WALTON

                                        IZAAK WALTON (1593-1683). 

Walton was a small tradesman of London, who preferred trout brooks and good reading to the profits of business and the doubtful joys of a city life; so at fifty years, when he had saved a little money, he left the city and followed his heart out into the country. He began his literary work, or rather his recreation, by writing his famous Lives,—kindly and readable appreciations of Donne, Wotton, Hooker, Herbert, and Sanderson, which stand at the beginning of modern biographical writing.

In 1653 appeared The Compleat Angler, which has grown steadily in appreciation, and which is probably more widely read than any other book on the subject of fishing. It begins with a conversation between a falconer, a hunter, and an angler; but the angler soon does most of the talking, as fishermen sometimes do; the hunter becomes a disciple, and learns by the easy method of hearing the fisherman discourse about his art. The conversations, it must be confessed, are often diffuse and pedantic; but they only make us feel most comfortably sleepy, as one invariably feels after a good day's fishing. So kindly is the spirit of the angler, so exquisite his appreciation of the beauty of the earth and sky, that one returns to the book, as to a favorite trout stream, with the undying expectation of catching something. Among a thousand books on angling it stands almost alone in possessing a charming style, and so it will probably be read as long as men go fishing. Best of all, it leads to a better appreciation of nature, and it drops little moral lessons into the reader's mind as gently as one casts a fly to a wary trout; so that one never suspects his better nature is being angled for. Though we have sometimes seen anglers catch more than they need, or sneak ahead of brother fishermen to the best pools, we are glad, for Walton's sake, to overlook such unaccountable exceptions, and agree with the milkmaid that "we love all anglers, they be such honest, civil, quiet men."

SIR THOMAS BROWNE

                                     SIR THOMAS BROWNE (1605-1682).


 Browne was a physician who, after much study and travel, settled down to his profession in Norwich; but even then he gave far more time to the investigation of natural phenomena than to the barbarous practices which largely constituted the "art" of medicine in his day. He was known far and wide as a learned doctor and an honest man, whose scientific studies had placed him in advance of his age, and whose religious views were liberal to the point of heresy. With this in mind, it is interesting to note, as a sign of the times, that this most scientific doctor was once called to give "expert" testimony in the case of two old women who were being tried for the capital crime of witchcraft. He testified under oath that "the fits were natural, but heightened by the devil's coöperating with the witches, at whose instance he [the alleged devil] did the villainies."

Browne's great work is the Religio Medici, i.e. The Religion of a Physician (1642), which met with most unusual success. "Hardly ever was a book published in Britain," says Oldys, a chronicler who wrote nearly a century later, "that made more noise than the Religio Medici." Its success may be due largely to the fact that, among thousands of religious works, it was one of the few which saw in nature a profound revelation, and which treated purely religious subjects in a reverent, kindly, tolerant way, without ecclesiastical bias. It is still, therefore, excellent reading; but it is not so much the matter as the manner—the charm, the gentleness, the remarkable prose style—which has established the book as one of the classics of our literature.

Two other works of Browne are Vulgar Errors (1646), a curious combination of scientific and credulous research in the matter of popular superstition, and Urn Burial, a treatise suggested by the discovery of Roman burial urns at Walsingham. It began as an inquiry into the various methods of burial, but ended in a dissertation on the vanity of earthly hope and ambitions. From a literary point of view it is Browne's best work, but is less read than the Religio Medici.

JEREMY TAYLOR

                                 JEREMY TAYLOR (1613-1667)

 Taylor was the greatest of the clergymen who made this period famous, a man who, like Milton, upheld a noble ideal in storm and calm, and himself lived it nobly. He has been called "the Shakespeare of divines," and "a kind of Spenser in a cassock," and both descriptions apply to him very well. His writings, with their exuberant fancy and their noble diction, belong rather to the Elizabethan than to the Puritan age.

From the large number of his works two stand out as representative of the man himself: The Liberty of Prophesying (1646), which Hallam calls the first plea for tolerance in religion, on a comprehensive basis and on deep-seated foundations; and The Rules and Exercises of Holy Living (1650). To the latter might be added its companion volume, Holy Dying, published in the following year. The Holy Living and Dying, as a single volume, was for many years read in almost every English cottage. With Baxter's Saints' Rest, Pilgrim's Progress, and the King James Bible, it often constituted the entire library of multitudes of Puritan homes; and as we read its noble words and breathe its gentle spirit, we cannot help wishing that our modern libraries were gathered together on the same thoughtful foundations.

THOMAS FULLER

THOMAS FULLER (1608-1661). 

Fuller was a clergyman and royalist whose lively style and witty observations would naturally place him with the gay Caroline poets. His best known works are The Holy War, The Holy State and the Profane State, Church History of Britain, and the History of the Worthies of England. The Holy and Profane State is chiefly a biographical record, the first part consisting of numerous historical examples to be imitated, the second of examples to be avoided. The Church History is not a scholarly work, notwithstanding its author's undoubted learning, but is a lively and gossipy account which has at least one virtue, that it entertains the reader. The Worthies, the most widely read of his works, is a racy account of the important men of England. Fuller traveled constantly for years, collecting information from out-of-the-way sources and gaining a minute knowledge of his own country. This, with his overflowing humor and numerous anecdotes and illustrations, makes lively and interesting reading. Indeed, we hardly find a dull page in any of his numerous books.

ROBERT BURTON

ROBERT BURTON (1577-1640)

Burton is famous chiefly as the author of the Anatomy of Melancholy, one of the most astonishing books in all literature, which appeared in 1621. Burton was a clergyman of the Established Church, an incomprehensible genius, given to broodings and melancholy and to reading of every conceivable kind of literature. Thanks to his wonderful memory, everything he read was stored up for use or ornament, till his mind resembled a huge curiosity shop. All his life he suffered from hypochondria, but curiously traced his malady to the stars rather than to his own liver. It is related of him that he used to suffer so from despondency that no help was to be found in medicine or theology; his only relief was to go down to the river and hear the bargemen swear at one another.

Burton's Anatomy was begun as a medical treatise on morbidness, arranged and divided with all the exactness of the schoolmen's demonstration of doctrines; but it turned out to be an enormous hodgepodge of quotations and references to authors, known and unknown, living and dead, which seemed to prove chiefly that "much study is a weariness to the flesh." By some freak of taste it became instantly popular, and was proclaimed one of the greatest books in literature. A few scholars still explore it with delight, as a mine of classic wealth; but the style is hopelessly involved, and to the ordinary reader most of his numerous references are now as unmeaning as a hyper-jacobian surface.

THE ELIZABETHAN AGE

THE ELIZABETHAN AGE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

The most characteristic feature of the age was the comparative religious tolerance, which was due largely to the queen's influence. The frightful excesses of the religious war known as the Thirty Years' War on the Continent found no parallel in England. Upon her accession Elizabeth found the whole kingdom divided against itself; the North was largely Catholic, while the southern counties were as strongly Protestant. Scotland had followed the Reformation in its own intense way, while Ireland remained true to its old religious traditions, and both countries were openly rebellious. The court, made up of both parties, witnessed the rival intrigues of those who sought to gain the royal favor. It was due partly to the intense absorption of men's minds in religious questions that the preceding century, though an age of advancing learning, produced scarcely any literature worthy of the name. Elizabeth favored both religious parties, and presently the world saw with amazement Catholics and Protestants acting together as trusted counselors of a great sovereign. The defeat of the Spanish Armada established the Reformation as a fact in England, and at the same time united all Englishmen in a magnificent national enthusiasm. For the first time since the Reformation began, the fundamental question of religious toleration seemed to be settled, and the mind of man, freed from religious fears and persecutions, turned with a great creative impulse to other forms of activity. It is partly from this new freedom of the mind that the Age of Elizabeth received its great literary stimulus.

It was an age of comparative social contentment, in strong contrast with the days of Langland. The rapid increase of manufacturing towns gave employment to thousands who had before been idle and discontented. Increasing trade brought enormous wealth to England, and this wealth was shared to this extent, at least, that for the first time some systematic care for the needy was attempted. Parishes were made responsible for their own poor, and the wealthy were taxed to support them or give them employment. The increase of wealth, the improvement in living, the opportunities for labor, the new social content—these also are factors which help to account for the new literary activity.

It is an age of dreams, of adventure, of unbounded enthusiasm springing from the new lands of fabulous riches revealed by English explorers. Drake sails around the world, shaping the mighty course which English colonizers shall follow through the centuries; and presently the young philosopher Bacon is saying confidently, "I have taken all knowledge for my province." The mind must search farther than the eye; with new, rich lands opened to the sight, the imagination must create new forms to people the new worlds. Hakluyt's famous Collection of Voyages, and Purchas, His Pilgrimage, were even more stimulating to the English imagination than to the English acquisitiveness. While her explorers search the new world for the Fountain of Youth, her poets are creating literary works that are young forever. Marston writes: "Why, man, all their dripping pans are pure gold. The prisoners they take are fettered in gold; and as for rubies and diamonds, they goe forth on holydayes and gather 'hem by the seashore to hang on their children's coates." This comes nearer to being a description of Shakespeare's poetry than of the Indians in Virginia. Prospero, in The Tempest, with his control over the mighty powers and harmonies of nature, is only the literary dream of that science which had just begun to grapple with the forces of the universe. Cabot, Drake, Frobisher, Gilbert, Raleigh, Willoughby, Hawkins,—a score of explorers reveal a new earth to men's eyes, and instantly literature creates a new heaven to match it. So dreams and deeds increase side by side, and the dream is ever greater than the deed. That is the meaning of literature.

To sum up, the Age of Elizabeth was a time of intellectual liberty, of growing intelligence and comfort among all classes, of unbounded patriotism, and of peace at home and abroad. For a parallel we must go back to the Age of Pericles in Athens, or of Augustus in Rome, or go forward a little to the magnificent court of Louis XIV, when Corneille, Racine, and Molière brought the drama in France to the point where Marlowe, Shakespeare, and Jonson had left it in England half a century earlier. Such an age of great thought and great action, appealing to the eyes as well as to the imagination and intellect, finds but one adequate literary expression; neither poetry nor the story can express the whole man,—his thought, feeling, action, and the resulting character; hence in the Age of Elizabeth literature turned instinctively to the drama and brought it rapidly to the highest stage of its development.

ROMANTICISM

ROMANTICISM AND ITS MEANING

While Dryden, Pope, and Johnson were successively the dictators of English letters, and while, under their leadership, the heroic couplet became the fashion of poetry, and literature in general became satiric or critical in spirit, and formal in expression, a new romantic movement quietly made its appearance. Thomson's The Seasons (1730) was the first noteworthy poem of the romantic revival; and the poems and the poets increased steadily in number and importance till, in the age of Wordsworth and Scott, the spirit of Romanticism dominated our literature more completely than Classicism had ever done. This romantic movement—which Victor Hugo calls "liberalism in literature"—is simply the expression of life as seen by imagination, rather than by prosaic "common sense," which was the central doctrine of English philosophy in the eighteenth century. It has six prominent characteristics which distinguish it from the so-called classic literature which we have just studied:

1. The romantic movement was marked, and is always marked, by a strong reaction and protest against the bondage of rule and custom, which, in science and theology, as well as in literature, generally tend to fetter the free human spirit.

2. Romanticism returned to nature and to plain humanity for its material, and so is in marked contrast to Classicism, which had confined itself largely to the clubs and drawing-rooms, and to the social and political life of London. Thomson's Seasons, whatever its defects, was a revelation of the natural wealth and beauty which, for nearly a century, had been hardly noticed by the great writers of England.

3. It brought again the dream of a golden age in which the stern realities of life were forgotten and the ideals of youth were established as the only permanent realities. "For the dreamer lives forever, but the toiler dies in a day," expresses, perhaps, only the wild fancy of a modern poet; but, when we think of it seriously, the dreams and ideals of a people are cherished possessions long after their stone monuments have crumbled away and their battles are forgotten. The romantic movement emphasized these eternal ideals of youth, and appealed to the human heart as the classic elegance of Dryden and Pope could never do.

4. Romanticism was marked by intense human sympathy, and by a consequent understanding of the human heart. Not to intellect or to science does the heart unlock its treasures, but rather to the touch of a sympathetic nature; and things that are hidden from the wise and prudent are revealed unto children. Pope had no appreciable humanity; Swift's work is a frightful satire; Addison delighted polite society, but had no message for plain people; while even Johnson, with all his kindness, had no feeling for men in the mass, but supported Sir Robert Walpole in his policy of letting evils alone until forced by a revolution to take notice of humanity's appeal. With the romantic revival all this was changed. While Howard was working heroically for prison reform, and Wilberforce for the liberation of the slaves, Gray wrote his "short and simple annals of the poor," and Goldsmith his Deserted Village, and Cowper sang,

    My ear is pained,
    My soul is sick with every day's report
    Of wrong and outrage with which earth is filled.
    There is no flesh in man's obdurate heart,
    It does not feel for man.

This sympathy for the poor, and this cry against oppression, grew stronger and stronger till it culminated in "Bobby" Burns, who, more than any other writer in any language, is the poet of the unlettered human heart.

5. The romantic movement was the expression of individual genius rather than of established rules. In consequence, the literature of the revival is as varied as the characters and moods of the different writers. When we read Pope, for instance, we have a general impression of sameness, as if all his polished poems were made in the same machine; but in the work of the best romanticists there is endless variety. To read them is like passing through a new village, meeting a score of different human types, and finding in each one something to love or to remember. Nature and the heart of man are as new as if we had never studied them. Hence, in reading the romanticists, who went to these sources for their material, we are seldom wearied but often surprised; and the surprise is like that of the sunrise, or the sea, which always offers some new beauty and stirs us deeply, as if we had never seen it before.

6. The romantic movement, while it followed its own genius, was not altogether unguided. Strictly speaking, there is no new movement either in history or in literature; each grows out of some good thing which has preceded it, and looks back with reverence to past masters. Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton were the inspiration of the romantic revival; and we can hardly read a poem of the early romanticists without finding a suggestion of the influence of one of these great leaders.

There are various other characteristics of Romanticism, but these six—the protest against the bondage of rules, the return to nature and the human heart, the interest in old sagas and mediæval romances as suggestive of a heroic age, the sympathy for the toilers of the world, the emphasis upon individual genius, and the return to Milton and the Elizabethans, instead of to Pope and Dryden, for literary models—are the most noticeable and the most interesting. Remembering them, we shall better appreciate the work of the following writers who, in varying degree, illustrate the revival of romantic poetry in the eighteenth century.

COLERIDGE'S CONTRIBUTION AS A POET

COLERIDGE'S CONTRIBUTION AS A POET

With Wordsworth, Coleridge is the co-founder of the Romantic Movement for his contribution to Lyrical ballads (1978) was numerically small but esthetically sublime. Coleridge produced mainly three types of poetry- personal, political and romantic. Some of his personal poems are- ‘Frost and Midnight’, ‘The Eolian Harp’, ‘An Ode to Dejection’, ‘Youth and Age’, ‘War without Hope’ and ‘This Lime-tree Bower my Prison’. Some of his famous political poems are- ‘France’, ‘An Ode’, ‘Ode on the Departing Year’. His three romantic and supernatural poems are- ‘The Rime of Ancient Mariner’, ‘Kubla Khan’ and ‘Christable’. For his simple, sensuous and impatient poetry, Coleridge is rightly hailed as the harbinger of romanticism.

Love in liberty, interest in supernatural and the mysterious, his celebration of humanized love for Nature, expression of melancholy and revolutionary zeal- all these romantic qualities make his poetry the purest and the most ethereal of the romantic spirit. His poetry is marked by love for Nature. In ‘Frost at Midnight’, Coleridge refers to a divine nature and the moral and educated influence which he exercises on those who truly love her. In ‘Ode to Dejection’, he informs us that we receive from nature only that which we give her:

   “In our life alone does Nature live:  
    Ours is her wedding garment, Ours her shroud.”    

As a poet of supernatural, he avoids gruesome and terrifying use of supernaturalism and makes it symbolic and suggested. He handles supernaturalism in a psychological manner and gives it supreme strength through a marvelous dream faculty. Coleridge occupied an important place among the Nature poets of England. Like Wordsworth, he was an acute observer of natural scenes but unlike Wordsworth, he described them not directly but through a veil of mystery. He treated nature as an animate, living and having an intelligence of its own.

Coleridge is indeed a romantic poet of gigantic genius. Yet he is beyond doubt, one of the most learned person of his age and has become immortal only by writing half a dozen of very remarkable poems- a unique feature in the history of English Literature.

Henry James

As a novelist, Henry James departed from the Victorian traditionbin emphasizing too much upon the construction on the plot. He was essentially an impressionist and psychologist who did not care too much for the coherent of the plots of his novels. In that way, Henry James formed a modernistic approach in repudiating the excessive importance given by the victorian novelist to the technique of plot construction.

As a novelist, Henry James is also, as Conrad pointed out, 'a historian of fine conscience'. His novels aptly display his awareness of the nice discrimination of shades of conduct- ' the deep shadows and the sunny places of the human mind'. His novels display a cultivated fineness of manner, test and spiritual experiences, as when Madam Marie in The Portrait of a Lady, looks at a tea-cup and wonders whether she had been wasting her life in living a life of sophisticated uselessness.

Henry James is an intellectual novelist and not an emotional or passionate one. He is concerned more with the study of mental process than with the emotions of human heart. The Portrait of a Lady is intellectually poysed upon Henry James realisation that freedom is an abstract quality inherent in the individual soul.

As an artist Henry James incessantly experimented varied techniques. He was the first to adopt the 'stream of consciousness' technique, which was later adopted by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. Henry James also evolved a new technique- he presented his story through the conscious of a single character discarding the ubiquity and omniscence of the traditional novelist.

All the above qualities make him a novelist's novelist and one of the supreme story teller and technicians in English fiction. He wrote a number of novels-
The American, Daisy Miller, The Portrait of a Lady, The Tragic Muse, The Wings of the Dove, The Golden Bowl, e.t.c.

Biographia Literaria

                Biographia Literaria

'Biographia Literaria' is a philosophical and auto-biographical work by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It is unsystematic and somehow unfinished; yet its greatness can not be denied. Coleridge deals here with his youthful admiration for the sonnets of William Boweles, his early friendship with Wordsworth and his concept of poetic imagination.

In the 13th chapter of 'Biographia Literaria', Coleridge says about fancy- "Fancy has no other counters to play with, but fixities and definites. The fancy is indeed no other than a mode of memory emancipated from the order of time and space." To Coleridge fancy is a mechanical process which receives the elementary images- the fixites and definites which come to it readymade from the sense. And without altering the parts it resembles them in mind.

According to Coleridge, imagination has two forms- primary and secondary. Primary imagination is merely the power of receiving impression of the external world through the senses. It imposes some wort of order on those impressions, reduces them to shape and size, so that mind is able to form clear image of the outside world. The primary imagination is universal, possessed by all.

The seconday imagination, on the other hand, is the peculiar and distinctive attribute of an artist. It is the secondary imagination which makes artistic creation possible. This type of imagination is more active and conscious in this working. It works upon what is perceived by primary imagination. It is an active agent which 'dissolves, diffuses, dissipates in order to create'. It is the power which harmonizes and reconciles and hence Coleridge calls it a 'magical systhesis power'.

French Revolution

         French Revolution

There is no doubt that the French revolution, especially the ideas that inspired revolution, had a profound influence on English romanticism in general and on the romantic poets in particular. For the sake of understanding the depth and pervasiveness of this influence, we may distinguish three phase of French revolution, each of which affected English romanticism. First, there is the doctrine phase- the age of Rosseau. Second, there is the political phase- the age of Robespierre and Danton, and thirdly, there is military phase- the age of Napoleon.

The social theories of Rosseau influenced Blake, Wordsworth and Coleridge. His call for 'return to nature' influenced the above poets, but it profoundly affected doctrinaires like William Godwin, and through Godwin, Shelly. For Wordsworth it meant love of external nature and of simple way of living. For Blake it meant a rejection of the Newtonian universe and its mechanical laws. Rosseau believed that man is by nature perfect and there is no compulsion with anything, but love.b

The political phase of French revolution affected the Romantic poets. William Blake wore the red cap on the day of the revolution. Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge were also stirred to their depths in the first flush of the revolution (1789). Wordsworth records this feelings vividly:
  "Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive
   But to be young was very heaven"
   Soon, however, these poets were horrified by the horror of blood flowing from the guillotine. Yet it must be remembered that the best work of both Wordsworth and Coleridge had been done in the days of their revolutionary enthusiasm.

The Napoleon phase of the rovolution had its greatest impact on Byron. His intensely egoistic nature found in Napoleons presonality, qualities to admire. Indeed he was intoxicated by Napoleon, untill he realized the moral emptiness of a restless, self-centred nature.

Western Marxism

                              Western Marxism

Western Marxism having its root in Marxism, follows a critical path through a number of writers- Lukacks, Althusser, Gramsci, Adorno, Bengamin and others.

       There are three characteristics,

a)   Its prominent culture- Thematic

b)   Its staunchly humanist view like knowledge

c)    The broad eclecticism of its conceptual equipment

Lukacks, a prolific writer, wrote Sole and Form, A Theory of Novel and his most controversial work, History and class Consciousness. The last book was a vigorous criticism of the ‘leninist party’. Later scolded by Lelin, lukacks was excommunicated.

Adorno was an intellectual leftist of the Weimar republic. The name of his book is Aesthetic Theory. He believes that all art is critical and art criticizes society. He valued modernism as the historical emancipation from her- money as an ideal. It is called dissonance.

The other western Marxism can be identified by the following key features-

a)   The neutralization of tradition,

b)   The generalization of norms and values,

c)    The broadening of the base for the exchange of opinion,

d)   The emphasis of socialization on the development of the individual.

Pre-Romantic Poetry

     ·       Pre-Romantic Poetry:

The pre-romantic poets consists of Thomas Garry. James Thomson,William Collins,William Cowper and even William Blake was a drastic departure from the Neo-Classical order and reaction against the school of Dr. Sammuel Johnson. Some of the chief feature of the pre-romantic poetry can be listed down in the fallowing manner:

a.     A sharp reation against the neo-classical form and contains of literature,

b.     Return to nature,

c.      Return to feelings and emotion,

d.     Cult of romance,

e.      Interest in middle ages and,

f.       Romantic melancholy and convictional diction.

The pre-romantic poetry reacted against the popian couplet and made an experiment in blank verse and Spenserian stanzas. James Thomson in his ‘Season’, William Cowper in his ‘The Task’, William Blake in his ‘Elegy’ picturized the various mood and sights of nature. The pre-romantic poets also retuened to feelings, strong emotion, and aspiration.

Wordsworth's definition of poetry

                    Wordsworth's definition of poetry

Wordsworth is rightly considered as greatest poet of Romantic Age, not merely due to his large number and variety of poetry but also because he is the founder-father of substantial amount of poetic theory which is the base of romantic credo. Wordsworth defines all good poetry as ‘the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings’. Wordsworth goes on to say that poetry takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility. While tracing and explaining the course of poetry from its moment of origin, Wordsworth explains:

                              “The emotion is contemplated till,

                                by a species of reaction, the

                                tranquility gradually disappears, and

                                an emotion, kindred to that which was

                                the subject of contemplation,

                                is gradually produced, and does itself

                                actually exist in the mind.”

            In this mood successful composition generally begins, and in a mood similar to this, it is carried on.

            According to Wordsworth the process of creating poetry emerges through four stages:

a)     Recollection,

b)    Contemplation,

c)     Recordescence,

d)    Composition.

      Wordsworth believes that our continued influx of feelings are modified and directed by our thoughts which are indeed the representation of our past thought. In his view, sensibility is not enough to ensure a good poetry, it must be directed by calm mind.

     

       Wordsworth further observes that in the process of composing poetry mind should be in a state of enjoyment. He observes that his memory is habitually consulted, it will not only supply a poet with his most valuable materials but will also do for him best part of his work. The best illustration for Wordsworth’s poetic theory is clearly traceable in his simple poem ‘The Daffodils’.

Hegemony

Between 1929 and 1935, the Italian communist Antonio Gramsci wrote approximately thirty documents on political, social and cultural subjects. His most widely echoed concept is that of 'hegemony'. According to Gramsci, a social class achieves a predominant influence and power, not by direct and overt means but by succeeding in making its ideological views so pervasive that the subordinate classes unwittingly accept and participate in their own oppression. Hegemony is akin to ideology but is more than that. Hegemony works most effectively when the dominated accept their domination. Hegemony refers to the process- including ideology- through which the dominant classes maintain power through the consent of the people. The concept of hegemony implies an openness to negotiation and exchange as well as conflict between classes and so refashions Marxist categories to fit in a modern post industrial society. Gramsci also emphasize the role of intellectuals and opinion- makers in helping people understand how they can effect their transformation. These thoughts influenced Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson who argue for the power of literary culture to intervene in and transform existing economic and political arrangements and activities.

De-construction

Jacques Derrida developed de-construction, a perspective that focuses on the lack of a truth out there or at the centre to provide meaning. He showed how all western philosophical systems are dependent on a center God, the self, the unconscious but structuralism had show that the center is a fiction merely another signified that has no being beyond language. Furthur more, Derrida focuses on the binary pairs that make meaning, arguing that rather than being polar opposites each was dependent on the other for meaning and existence. He also showed how in all binaries, one of the terms was always subordinated to the other man/woman good/evil. To describe how meaning is produced, Derrida developed the term difference, meaning to differ and to defer. He focuses in particular on the binary speech/writing in which speech has been seen to provide a guarantee of subjectivity and presence in the history of philosophy and linguistics.

Marxism

Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19^th century philosopher, economist, journalist and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. Marx drew on Hegel’s philosophy, the political economy of Adam Smith, Ricardian economics and 19^th century French socialism to develop a critique of society which he claimed was both scientific and revolutionary. This critique achieved his most systematic expression in his master piece, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (Das Kapital). Georg Lukacs attempted a philosophical justification  of Bolshevism in his 1923 History and Class Consciousness and became the leading Marxist theoretician of literature, writing from the Soviet Union and his native Hungary. In Lukacs’s view realism meant more than rendering the surface appearance: it meant providing a more complete, true, vivid and dynamic view of the world around. Novels were reflections of life and therefore not real, but they nonetheless involved the mental framing that eluded photographic representation. Lukacs also adopted the Hegelian dialectic in stressing the contradictions of class struggle. Capitalism had destroyed the feudal order, replacing it by more efficient production. Social realism was also Bertolt Brecht’s detestation, and his famous technique of  “baring the device” derives from the Russian Formalist concept of defamiliarization. Brecht as a Marxist rejected a formal construction of place and was constantly attempting to unmask the disguises of an ever-devious capitalist system.